History of European Integration:
Cooperation Prior to 1957:
Europe has historically been a contested space with a long history of trade, religion, war and territorial aspirations. Changing boarders, culture and sense of belonging have played a role in this.
WW2 as a Catalyst:
After the war left the continent economically, morally and physically destroyed, European integration and a (more efficient) common market was seen to be the way to solve these problems. This ensured unification without domination.
Critically, integration would also solve the ‘German question’ – Germany could not easily be controlled by other European countries, but it could equally not rule the continent as a single nation state. By interconnecting so closely with Germany, it ensured that Germany (or indeed any other European state) would not want to harm its European allies, as it would be hurting itself also.
At the same time, there was a strong federalist movement and move towards the creation of rights-based liberal order. America and other European actors heavily invested in this to control the rise of communism and protect their own values.
Founding of the European Economic Community - 1957:
The signing of the Treaty of Rome created the EEC, committing to a common market, common policies and free movement between member states.
Member states are ‘determined to lay the foundations of an ever closer union amongst the peoples of Europe’. (Treaty of Rome)
The EEC created supranational institutions: a Court, Commission, Parliamentary Assembly etc. These institutions were intended to be apolitical and non-democratic.
Despite some change regarding the expansion of membership and competencies of the community, the same general institutional structure still exists today under the EU.
Eurosclerosis and Europhoria – 1960-1992:
The failure of the European Defence Community (EDC) and European Political Community (EPC) resulted from a veto from France. France also vetoed Britain joining the group twice and left their chair empty. This prevented decisions being made within the EEC.
The Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) created a ‘new legal order’ that can be used as an ‘engine of integration’ (own words). Unlike international law, the CJEU ensured enforcement of European law using the doctrines of supremacy and direct effect. National courts are bound to uphold EU law where it clashes with national law.
European Council (informally) established in 1974.
European Parliament elections begin in 1979.
Over this period, there was an expansion to include the UK, Ireland, Denmark, Greece, Spain and Portugal.
Maastricht and the Existential Question – 1992:
The Economic Monetary Union (the ‘euro’) was created following the signing of the Maastricht Treaty. Many powers are shifted from a national level to Brussels, deepening cooperation.
This marks a change in the integration from being an economic project to a political one – the EU moved from being an economic community focused on policy to a political union (a polity).
Additionally, the Fall of the Wall in Germany in 1989 was seen as the end of history: from now on, society would be liberal.
Self-Doubts – 1992-2010:
In search of democracy and legitimacy, many treaties were created to attempt to rectify the deficit, finally ending with the Lisbon Treaty.
During this, the EU expanded rapidly.
1995: Sweden, Finland, and Austria
2004: Estonia, Lithuania, Latvia, Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia, Hungary, Malta, and Cyprus
2007: Romania and Bulgaria
2013: Croatia
Potential Members / Candidate States: Turkey, Iceland, Monaco, Serbia, Macedonia, Moldova, Ukraine
EU in Crisis, Disintegration and Geopolitics – 2010-2022:
The Euro-crisis continued long after the world got out of the global financial crisis, showing problems with the stability of the Euro. The EU intended to place Greece in austerity in return for bailing them out of their debt.
The Refugee crisis resulting from the war in Syria also exposed the EUs lack of provisions for issues regarding refugees and asylum seekers.
Brexit marks the first time a member state leaves the EU, perhaps shattering the illusion about positive integration. However, it seems to have strengthened the pull of integration since it has proven that member states actually can leave should they wish.
Hungary and Poland have undermined the Rule of Law and core values of the EU. These governments (and other Eurosceptic politicians) suggest that another form of integration that is controlled by national governments is required.
COVID marks the re-imposition of boarders and control of movement. For the first time, the European Commission has been allowed to take money from its fund and distribute between member states for European projects.
The war in Ukraine creates questions of the extent of EU power to protect its own members.
Future of European Integration:
In the UK - Brexit:
Brexit is an extreme example of the tension between EU and national politics – a tension between sources of legitimacy and authority.
Withdrawal Agreement:
The Agreement is essentially the ‘divorce settlement’ of the EU and the UK.
Northern Ireland Protocol:
The Protocol establishes an artificial border between different parts of the UK.
The British Government has said that it will not be enforced in the UK, breaking an international obligation it has signed up to.
Other Parts of the EU:
Turkey – the EU has been giving billions to Turkey to keep refugees there instead of allowing them to continue into EU member states, undermining its own values on asylum seekers and refugees.
The EU is seeking to transition to green energy.
Germany – there has been significant constitutional discourse between judiciary and government. National constitutional courts unhappy with EU judgements / law.
EU Leadership – the EU has seen a shift in power since COVID-19.
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